Describe The Four Types Of Solid Structures Environmental Sciences Essay

Describe The Four Types Of Solid Structures Environmental Sciences Essay There are three forms of substances exist: liquid, solid and gas in which solid is one of the major state of matter. The solid structure bonds the atoms together by different chemical physical attraction. Chemical bonds are the result of interactions of electrons by various forces of attraction. This attraction can hold atoms together in a stable arrangement. Atoms may transfer or share atoms to form molecules and compounds. When atoms bond together by chemical bonds, they will become more stable. Different types of chemical bonds determine solids properties, such as melting point, conductivity and solubility (Lister and Renshaw, 2000). Electron transferring form ionic bonds while electron sharing and joining molecules form covalent bonds. Linus Pauling came up with a scale, a value for each element called the electronegativity (E.N.) value. Each element has different desire wanting, ability to attract electrons. The strong electron attractions were given high values and some atoms have very low ability to attract were given a low value. These values are relative-comparison values and have no units. The value of difference electronegativity between two atoms less than 1.8 are defined as covalent bonds while the value of difference electronegativity between two atoms more than 2.0 are defined as ionic bonds. This essay will describe four types of solid structures: ionic and metallic which contains of unit cell, giant covalent which is held by network and simple molecular which are small molecules with weak forces of attraction. Ionic Structure First of all, ionic bonding commonly exists in crystal solid structures. Ionic bonding electrons are transferred from mental atoms to non-metal atoms which result in each ion obtaining a full outer shell of electrons to become stable. Commonly, metals form cation by losing valence electrons while non-metals form anions by gaining valence electrons. Sodium chloride (NaCl) is a well known ionic compound. Sodium loses one electron from its outer shell while the chlorine gains one electron to fill its outer most shell. When sodium (Na+) ions bond with chloride (Cl-) ions they form common table salt, sodium chloride (NaCl) (Lister and Renshaw, 2000). In addition, Sodium chloride (NaCl) is made up of giant lattice of ions. There are a large amount of sodium ions and chloride ions packed together which depends on how big the crystal is. Figure 1 (Adapted Steinberg, 2000) shows how does a bit of sodium chloride lattice arranged. Figure 1: Ionic Bonding in Sodium Chloride (Adapted from Steinberg, 2000) Each sodium ion is at a centre surrounded by 6 chloride anions. Each chloride ion is also in the centre, it is also surrounded by 6 sodium cations. So sodium chloride is described 6 co-ordinated. The pattern in this way will be repeated countless times in sodium chloride crystal and ensure the maximum stability in sodium chloride. Because when each ion is touched by 6 opposite charged ions, there is more attraction between the ions which makes the structure more stable (Clark, 2010). Figure 2 (Adapted from Clark, 2010) shows clearly the unit cell of sodium chloride. Figure 2: Unit Cell of Sodium Chloride (Adapted from Clark, 2010) Commonly, the atoms arrange in a regular way, but sometimes this is not the case. All metal atoms consist of a lot of crystal grains which are regions of regularity. At grains boundaries atoms become inconformity. There are various properties in ionic compounds. Firstly, ionic compounds have a high melting point and boiling point. There are strong attractions between the positive and negative ions which take a lot of energy to overcome them. Secondly, one of the main properties of ionic compounds is they conduct electricity when molten, because when the compound is in the liquid state, the ions can carry the charge freely. Ionic compounds are brittle which resulting from an applied stress. The ions will be moved sufficiently to make contact between ions. Ions of the same charged are brought side-by-side leading to repulsion forces within the crystal. Many ionic compounds dissolve in the water. Water molecules have unbonded electrons, called lone pairs. They attract positive ions and negative ions in the compounds form dative bonds and polar water forms electrostatic attractions between the ions. Water molecules also produce energy by hydration to break up the lattice and reduce their attractio n (Clark, 2010). Covalent bonds Atoms sharing electrons form covalent bonds which the electronegativity difference between two atoms are less than 1.8. Giant Covalent Structure In giant covalent structures, all atoms are bonded together by covalent bonds which directly have an influence on specific atoms in a regular extended network. The electrostatics forces hold other structures together to act equally in all directions. Diamond is best example of giant covalent structure (Lister and Renshaw, 2000). Diamond has a tetrahedral shape in three-dimensions, with four covalent bonds from each carbon atom. According to VSEPR theory which can explain the levels of repulsion between chemical bonds (Lane, 2009), to reduce the repulsion four pairs of covalent bonds form and covalent bonds repel each other equally. There are no intermolecular forces of attraction only, between the carbon atoms. Figure 4 (Adapted from Chemcases, 2010) shows the structure of diamond Figure 4 shows the structure of diamond (Adapted from Chemcases, 2010). Diamond is well known as the hardness natural substance, and results from four strong covalent bonds giving diamond a strong rigid extended and continuous structure, so diamond just can be cut by other diamond. In addition, diamond has a very high melting point of around 4000K, because to break up the four strong covalent bonds requires a lot of energy. Next, the electrons which are held tightly are not free to move, resulting in the diamond having neither conduct electricity nor heat. At Last, diamond is insoluble in water because the covalent bonds are much stronger than the attraction of water molecules (Clark, 2000). Simple Molecular Structure The simple molecular substances are non-metal compounds which are made up of atoms by strong covalently bond and relatively weak intermolecular forces. Water is taken as a typical type of the simple molecular structure (Lower, 2010). In water, each hydrogen atom is bound to the central oxygen atom by a pair of sharing electrons. Oxygen has four free electrons in its outer second level to form two lone pairs to reduce the repulsions between clouds of negative charge, leaving two of the outer electrons shared with hydrogen to form covalent bonds. This rule leads to a tetrahedral structure in which the angle between electron pairs is 104.5Â °. In addition, water molecules forms hydrogen bonding. Oxygen likes electrons more than hydrogen and electrons spend more time near the oxygen, resulting in oxygen is part negative charge while the hydrogen is positive charge. Electrons are distributed leading to water form a negative structure of hydrogen bonds. Dipole-dipole attractions occur between two water molecules, due to its polar nature (Lane, 2009). Figure 5 (Adapted from Google, 2010) shows the structure of water molecule. Figure 5: Hydrogen Bonding Between Water Molecules (Adapted from Google, 2010) As the weak forces exist in simple molecular substances, they are not very dense or strong nor solid resulting in it having a low melting point and boiling point. Simple molecular substances can easily become gas or liquid. There are no ions existing in these substances, so they are insoluble in the water and can not conduct electricity (Lower, 2010). Metallic Structure Metals are giant structures which hold the atoms together by metallic bonding transferring the electrons. All elements of metal can easily lose electrons forming positive ions which are in a freely moving sea and electrons. How many electrons have been lost by each metal determine the number of electrons in the sea (Lister and Renshaw, 2000). Most ions in metals pack as close as they can. However, sodium in Group one is more open and less dense and forms a unit called the body-centred cubic (BCC) structure which is a common packing geometry for some metals. This structure is not a close-packed arrangement, just 68% of the space being filled (Lister and Renshaw, 2000). There is an atom located in the centre of a cube which is surrounded by eight other spheres. Figure 3 (Adapted from Clark, 2007) shows the structure of sodium: a coordination of eight and a unit cell containing two atoms. Figure 3: The Structure of Sodium (Adapted from Clark, 2007) There are several properties about metals. Most of metals tend to have a high melting point and boiling point due to the strength of the metallic bonding. The strength of metallic bonding is not only different from metal to metal, but also depends on the number of electrons which each atom can delocalise in the sea of electrons and by the packing. Transition metals have a high melting point and boiling point because they form a unit called hexagonal close packing. Group one such as Sodium is an exception and has a low melting point and boiling point, because it only has one electron to contribute to the bond and it is 8 co-ordinated which can not form strong enough bonds as other metals. Secondly, metals are good conductors of electricity. The electrons in the sea are free to move throughout the structure even cross the grain boundaries. The metallic bonding still exists as long as atoms are touching each other. In addition, these electrons are also responsible for the high thermal c onductivities of metals. Electrons of the metals can pick up heat energy which is transferred to the rest of metal by moving electrons (Clark, 2007). In conclusion, electrons are transferred forming ionic bonding in ionic crystal solid structure. As giant lattice of ions exist in ionic solids, the ionic solids not only have a high melting point and boiling point but also conduct electricity well. Metal hold the atoms together by metallic bonding which determines that metal compounds have a high melting point and boiling point and are good conductors of electricity and heat. Although both of giant covalent structures and simple molecular structures have electron sharing covalent bonding, they have different properties. Strong covalent network bonding is involved in giant covalent structures holding the atoms together, with the result that giant covalent compounds are easily to melt and can not conduct electricity. In contrast, there are some weak intramolecular forces in simple molecular structures which lead to this kind of structure having a low melting point and boiling point, and unable to conduct electricity.

Playgroups support and offer valuable opportunities Essay

Playgroups support and offer valuable opportunities for parents to meet and share their experiences and for children to play and socialise. They are coordinated by qualified community workers who give parenting tips and advice and provide information about other community services for families. Expert guest speakers are invited to talk about topics related to parenting or childhood development. Parents are encouraged to become involved in planning and running playgroup activities. Playgroups provide a range of learning experiences to stimulate children’s intellectual growth. They learn about interactions with other children and can develop their communication skills. The community workers can help parents with behaviour-management techniques, provide information for parents about topics such as child development, health, hygiene and child safety. They can also help with developing social networks for parents, and identify developmental problems and refer families to relevant services. BENEFITS FOR FAMILIES Supported playgroups bring a number of benefits to the communities in which they operate and to the people who take part. These benefits areThis is a service that lends toys, games, puzzles and educational aids to families. The items from the toy libraries must be returned at a certain time. At some toy libraries, children are allowed to attend the library to play with the toys there. Leisure library – this provides play materials for adults, especially for disabled adults and families from disadvantaged backgrounds, who have not known the joy of play. Teenagers can also benefit form these libraries, as there is challenging activities that could positively counteract effects of boredom, such as drugs and alcohol abuse. The libraries for children, the toys/resources that are lent, can help children to develop physically, mentally, socially and emotionally. They can learn through play by imitating, exploring, creating, solving problems and sharing with others, (brothers/sisters). Toy libraries promote ACTIVE LEARNING. The libraries also help low-income families who are not able to provide their children with adequate learning opportunities. The parents may not be able to send their child to any form of pre-school centres. Specialist toys and equipment, which can be very expensive to buy, can be available for children who have special needs. Many toys which can be bought at home, end up lying about the house, with the toy library, 1 toy is exchanged for another. Other benefits for having a toy library is that it can help parents learn about and are empowered to provide suitable stimulation for their child. Some may say that parents don’t want to get involved, but the fact is that the parent doesn’t know what to do or how to do it. The toy library could help the children and parents to play together, to share the activities, this would help to strengthen the family unit. Children who are ‘at risk’ can receive preventive stimulation, the toys at the library may be graded, this can help the child make steady progress on their development. The child’s self confidence may increase with each toy, when they master the activity. Therapists report that children receiving therapy and also belong to a toy library, generally improve faster with their development and social well-being. There can be additional services that can be offered by toy libraries, these are names of childminders, schools in the area. Leaflets giving information about organisations, nutrition and different workshops, that are available in the local area. Homestart This is a charity organisation, in which parent volunteers help families and children through rough patches in their lives. Volunteers help all types of parents, mums struggling with post-natal depression, young couples who don’t have any idea of what to do during their babies early years, professional women having difficulty coping with the switch from the structured work environment, to home life and late parenthood. The volunteers provide non-judgement support to allow the people to build on their own strengths. Homestart volunteers set out to end the isolation that parents with young children experience. It offers friendship, practical help and support. They are trained how to talk, encourage, when necessary to guide mums and dads. The parent volunteers create an atmosphere in which families can cope with the pressures they are facing, this can then reduce the potential, for family breakdown. The volunteers can also help families get their act together sufficiently so they no longer need the supervision of statutory social services. E. g. in 2003/4, 822 children whose families were supported by Homestart were removed form the child protection register. The volunteers work alongside parents, not telling them how to bring up their children, but may offer advice if asked. Sure start children’s centres These centres are in the most disadvantaged areas. The services they provide are:- Good quality early learning, combined with full day care provision for children, this could be effective for both child and parents. The child would make friends, learn and develop their skills and their developmental stage. The parents may be able to go out and find work. There are effective links with Jobcentre Plus for training or employment. Their would be support and services to parents and children who may need different services. I. e. special needs. The workers there, give information and advice to parents on a range of subjects, I. e.  childcare, looking after babies and young children, education services for 3 and 4 year olds. They have drop in sessions and other activities for children and parents, this can help parents socialise with other parents, make friends, look at other children and see other children playing, parents playing with their children and learning them to do the same. It can stop parents form being isolated in their home, getting them out and active, letting them discover new activities, learning about themselves and others around them, discovering new hobbies.

Sophocles Antigone The Power Of State And The Rule Of God

THE CHARACTER OFANTIGONE BETWEEN THE RULE OF STATE AND THE RULE OF GOD Ancient Greece was a male dominating society; Sophocles work Antigone portrays women as being a strong and capable of making wise decision. The Antigone is certainly a play of antitheses and conflicts and this state of conflict is embodied in the presence on stage of two protagonists each diametrically opposed to the other. Antigone is a beautiful play written by Sophocles. This is the play in which there is a mention of a beautiful girl who was between the law of family and the law of state. Her two brothers Eteocles and Polyneices were dead by fighting each other for the throne of Thebes. Creon the maternal uncle of Antigone becomes the king as a right of the nearest relation of the king. He ordered to the Chorus that only one brother who fought for the country can be honored and buried with all rites but another one would bared from all types of honor and left unburied for the prey of dogs, worms and birds. 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Britain and American Influence on Australian Pop Culture...

The Influence of American and British Popular Culture on Australia in the 1950s In the 1950s America and Britain influenced Australia’s popular culture in a number of ways. Although Australia’s national identity is evident in every part of popular culture, America and Britain both had a significant impact on the development of Australian culture since World War Two. Throughout out the decade they changed the way people thought about Australian fashion, music and entertainment. Fashion was based around celebrity images and American cinema and television became a big hit. In the 1950s, the fashion industry was based mostly around teenagers and young adults. Before this time, adolescents were expected to follow in their parents’†¦show more content†¦Movies starring young men as the main character such as The Wild One and Rebel Without a Cause inspired young men to follow punk style fashion trends. Wearing blue jeans, a white t-shirt, and a leather jacket became popular around this time, and it was causing a generation of young men to change their attitudes. This trend became â€Å"a symbol of teenage rebellion for boys everywhere.† However, not all boys were following this punk style of fashion. Many were leaning more towards the British styles and trends, including the ‘teddy boy’ style, which consisted of high waisted, narrow ‘drain pipe’ trousers, long jackets, slim ties and large, shiny, pointed shoes. (http://www.skwirk.com/p-c_s-14_u-189_t-506_c-1873/nsw/history/australias-social-and-cultural-histo ry-in-the-post-war-period/social-and-cultural-features-of-the-1950s/fashion-in-the-1950s) By the 1950s it was becoming easier for more Australians to afford music products such as radios and vinyl records. Before television was introduced in Australia, radio was evidently the most popular form of entertainment. 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